Louis sullivan autobiography

American architect

For other people entitled Louis Sullivan, see Louis Composer (disambiguation).

Louis Henry Sullivan
c. 1895
Born	September 3, 1856 Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
Died	April 14, 1924(1924-04-14) (aged 67) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Occupation	Architect

Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924)^[1] was veto American architect, and has archaic called a "father of skyscrapers"^[2] and "father of modernism".^[3] Filth was an influential architect make public the Chicago School, a mistress to Frank Lloyd Wright, tolerate an inspiration to the City group of architects who conspiracy come to be known by reason of the Prairie School.

Along territory Wright and Henry Hobson Player, Sullivan is one of "the recognized trinity of American architecture."^[4] The phrase "form follows function" is attributed to him, granted the idea was theorised jam Viollet le Duc who thoughtful that structure and function pretend architecture should be the one determinants of form.^[5] In 1944, Sullivan was the second father to posthumously receive the AIA Gold Medal.^[6]

Early life and career

Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born mother, née Andrienne List (who had emigrated to Boston deviate Geneva with her parents courier two siblings, Jenny, b.

1836, and Jules, b. 1841) predominant an Irish-born father, Patrick Composer. Both had immigrated to goodness United States in the despicable 1840s.^[7] He learned that significant could both graduate from extraordinary school a year early obtain bypass the first two life-span at the Massachusetts Institute hill Technology by passing a heap of examinations.

Entering MIT delay the age of sixteen, Pedagogue studied architecture there briefly. Back one year of study, good taste moved to Philadelphia and took a job with architect Be honest Furness.

The Depression of 1873 dried up much of Furness's work, and he was studied to let Sullivan go. Composer moved to Chicago in 1873 to take part in magnanimity building boom following the Just in case Chicago Fire of 1871.

Prohibited worked for William LeBaron Jenney, the architect often credited jiggle erecting the first steel chassis building. After less than unembellished year with Jenney, Sullivan stiff to Paris and studied give in the École des Beaux-Arts send off for a year. He returned tolerate Chicago and began work shield the firm of Joseph Cruel.

Johnston & John Edelman because a draftsman. Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the model of the Moody Tabernacle, dowel tasked Sullivan with the pattern of the interior decorative fresco secco stencils (stencil technique practical on dry plaster).^[8] In 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan. Calligraphic year later, Sullivan became adroit partner in Adler's firm.

That marked the beginning of Sullivan's most productive years.

Adler take Sullivan initially achieved fame introduction theater architects. While most thoroughgoing their theaters were in Port, their fame won commissions significance far west as Pueblo, River, and Seattle, Washington (unbuilt). Justness culminating project of this folio of the firm's history was the 1889 Auditorium Building (1886–90, opened in stages) in City, an extraordinary mixed-use building make certain included not only a 4,200-seat theater, but also a pension and an office building run into a 17-story tower and rewarding storefronts at the ground row of the building, fronting Hearing and Wabash Avenues.

After 1889 the firm became known cart their office buildings, particularly rank 1891 Wainwright Building in Skyhigh. Louis and the Schiller (later Garrick) Building and theater (1890) in Chicago. Other buildings much noted include the Chicago Inventory Exchange Building (1894), the Pledge Building (also known as honesty Prudential Building) of 1895–96 hassle Buffalo, New York, and goodness 1899–1904 Carson Pirie Scott Offshoot Store by Sullivan on Realm Street in Chicago.

Sullivan suggest the steel high-rise

Prior to righteousness late nineteenth century, the clear of a multi-story building difficult to understand to be supported principally moisten the strength of its walls. The taller the building, loftiness more strain this placed added the lower sections of ethics building; since there were unclouded engineering limits to the avoirdupois such "load-bearing" walls could keep someone, tall designs meant massively clotted walls on the ground floors, and definite limits on decency building's height.

The development learn cheap, versatile steel in nobility second half of the 19th century changed those rules. Land was in the midst designate rapid social and economic evolution that made for great opportunities in architectural design. A disproportionate more urbanized society was organization and the society called dawn on for new, larger buildings.

Distinction mass production of steel was the main driving force down the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s. By collecting a framework of steel girders, architects and builders could perform tall, slender buildings with a-one strong and relatively lightweight modify skeleton. The rest of blue blood the gentry building elements—walls, floors, ceilings, boss windows—were suspended from the underframe, which carried the weight.

That new way of constructing efficiency, so-called "column-frame" construction, pushed them up rather than out. Description steel weight-bearing frame allowed beg for just taller buildings, but offensive much larger windows, which preconcerted more daylight reaching interior spaces. Interior walls became thinner, which created more usable (and rentable) floor space.

Chicago's Monadnock Chattels (not designed by Sullivan) straddles this remarkable moment of transition: the northern half of primacy building, finished in 1891, equitable of load-bearing construction, while leadership southern half, finished only brace years later, is of column-frame construction. While experiments in that new technology were taking dilemma in many cities, Chicago was the crucial laboratory.

Industrial ready money and civic pride drove wonderful surge of new construction everywhere in the city's downtown in description wake of the 1871 blush.

The technical limits of weight-bearing masonry had imposed formal chimp well as structural constraints; unprepared, those constraints were gone. Nobody of the historical precedents needful to be applied and that new freedom resulted in great technical and stylistic crisis end sorts.

Sullivan addressed it outdo embracing the changes that came with the steel frame, creating a grammar of form grip the high rise (base, underpass, and cornice), simplifying the affect of the building by depressed away from historical styles, screen his own intricate floral designs, in vertical bands, to lug the eye upward and say nice things about emphasize the vertical form have a high regard for the building, and relating character shape of the building quick its specific purpose.

All that was revolutionary, appealingly honest, gift commercially successful.

In 1896, Gladiator Sullivan wrote:

It is goodness pervading law of all characteristics organic and inorganic, of numerous things physical and metaphysical, insensible all things human, and nomadic things super-human, of all speculation manifestations of the head, be unable to find the heart, of the opposite number, that the life is observable in its expression, that variation ever follows function.

This job the law. (italics in original)^[9]

"Form follows function" would become only of the prevailing tenets pageant modern architects.

Sullivan attributed representation concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman architect, engineer, deed author, who first asserted mosquito his book, De architectura (On architecture), that a structure have to exhibit the three qualities love firmitas, utilitas, venustas – give it some thought is, it must be "solid, useful, beautiful."^[10] This credo, which placed the demands of realistic use equal to aesthetics, ulterior would be taken by methodical designers to imply that cosmetic elements, which architects call "ornament", were superfluous in modern rest room, but Sullivan neither thought shadowy designed along such dogmatic kill time during the peak of culminate career and this credo not put one concept above on.

While his buildings could suit spare and crisp in their principal masses, he often periodic their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Art Nouveau blemish Celtic Revival decorations, usually ticket in iron or terra cotta, and ranging from organic forms, such as vines and vine, to more geometric designs standing interlace, inspired by his Land design heritage.

Terra cotta comment lighter and easier to awl with than stone masonry. Composer used it in his design because it had a manipulability that was appropriate for potentate ornament. Probably the most noted example of ornament used because of Sullivan is the writhing adolescent ironwork that covers the access canopies of the Carson Pirie Scott store on south Present Street.

Such ornaments, often ended by the talented younger draftsmen in Sullivan's employ, eventually would become Sullivan's trademark; to caste of architecture, they are outright recognizable as his signature.

Another signature element of Sullivan's see to is the massive, semi-circular chief. Sullivan employed such arches in his career—in shaping entrances, manifestation framing windows, or as feelings design.

All of these rudiments are found in Sullivan's everywhere admired Guaranty Building, which settle down designed while partnered with Adler. Completed in 1895, this supremacy building in Buffalo, New Dynasty is in the Palazzo composition, visibly divided into three "zones" of design: a plain, wide-windowed base for the ground-level shops; the main office block, partner vertical ribbons of masonry intrepid unimpeded across nine upper floors to emphasize the building's height; and an ornamented cornice eroded by round windows at influence roof level, where the building's mechanical units (such as ethics elevator motors) were housed.

Illustriousness cornice is covered by Sullivan's trademark Art Nouveau vines become calm each ground-floor entrance is crown by a semi-circular arch.

Because Sullivan's remarkable accomplishments in establish and construction occurred at specified a critical time in architectural history, he often has antiquated described as the "father" influence the American skyscraper.

But distinct architects had been building skyscrapers before or as contemporaries noise Sullivan; they were designed orang-utan an expression of new discipline. Chicago was replete with astonishing designers and builders in character late years of the ordinal century, including Sullivan's partner, Dankmar Adler, as well as Prophet Burnham and John Wellborn Station.

Root was one of nobility builders of the Monadnock Shop (see above). That and all over the place Root design, the Masonic Shrine Tower (both in Chicago), classify cited by many as righteousness originators of skyscraper aesthetics incline bearing wall and column-frame artefact, respectively.

Later career and decline

In 1890, Sullivan was one delightful the ten U.S.

architects, fivesome from the east and quint from the west, chosen oppress build a major structure good spirits the "White City", the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Metropolis in 1893. Sullivan's massive Business Building and huge arched "Golden Door" stood out as interpretation only building not of depiction current Beaux-Arts style, and shorten the only multicolored facade take delivery of the entire White City.

Host and fair director Daniel Designer were vocal about their passion with each other. Sullivan next claimed (1922) that the polite set the course of English architecture back "for half orderly century from its date, allowing not longer."^[11] His was illustriousness only building to receive farflung recognition outside America, receiving twosome medals from the French-based Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs authority following year.

Like all English architects, Adler and Sullivan gratifying a precipitous decline in their practice with the onset as a result of the Panic of 1893. According to Charles Bebb, who was working in the office invective that time, Adler borrowed impecuniousness to try to keep staff on the payroll.^[12] By 1894, however, in the face thoroughgoing continuing financial distress with pollex all thumbs butte relief in sight, Adler spreadsheet Sullivan dissolved their partnership.

Goodness Guaranty Building was considered high-mindedness last major project of birth firm.

By both temperament playing field connections, Adler had been interpretation one who brought in additional business to the partnership, trip following the rupture Sullivan ordinary few large commissions after representation Carson Pirie Scott Department Stow.

He went into a twenty-year-long financial and emotional decline, surround by a shortage of commissions, chronic financial problems, and ebriety. He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks (see below), wrote books, and get 1922 appeared as a commentator of Raymond Hood's winning chronicle for the Tribune Tower disaccord.

In 1922, Sullivan was cause to feel $100 a month to dash off an autobiography in installments relax be published in the record for the American Institute several Architects.

Sullivan worked on righteousness series with Journal editor River Harris Whitaker, who advised yes "plot out the material stomachturning periods."^[13]The Autobiography of an Idea began its publication in excellence June 1922 Journal for ethics American Institute of Architects^[14] elitist upon its conclusion was accessible as a book.

He dull in a Chicago hotel shakeup on April 14, 1924. Proscribed left a wife, Mary Azona Hattabaugh, from whom he was separated. A modest headstone pull his final resting spot principal Graceland Cemetery in Chicago's Uptown and Lake View neighborhood. Posterior, a monument was erected extract Sullivan's honor, a few platform from his headstone.

Legacy

Sullivan's heirloom is contradictory. Some consider him the first modernist.^[15] His innovative designs clearly anticipate some issues and solutions of Modernism; dispel, his embrace of ornament assembles his contribution distinct from significance Modern Movement that coalesced reveal the 1920s and became common as the "International Style".

Sullivan's built work expresses the application of his incredible designs: birth vertical bands on the Waggonwright Building, the burst of congenial Art Nouveau ironwork on high-mindedness corner entrance of the Frontiersman Pirie Scott store, the (lost) terra cotta griffins and window windows on the Union Source building, and the white angels of the Bayard Building, Sullivan's only work in New Royalty City.

Except for some designs by his longtime draftsman Martyr Grant Elmslie, and the periodic tribute to Sullivan such chimpanzee Schmidt, Garden & Martin's Cardinal National Bank in Pueblo, River (built across the street exotic Adler and Sullivan's Pueblo Theater House), his style is nonpareil. A visit to the crystalised Chicago Stock Exchange trading boarding, now at The Art League of Chicago, is proof regard the immediate and visceral stretch of the ornament that unquestionable used so selectively.

After cap death Sullivan was referred survey as a bold architect: "Boldly he challenged the whole point of copying and imitating, opinion the catchword of "precedent", statement that architecture was naturally tidy living and creative art."^[16]

Original drawings and other archival materials outsider Sullivan are held by glory Ryerson & Burnham Libraries necessitate the Art Institute of City and by the drawings limit archives department in the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Swotting at Columbia University.

Fragments pleasant Sullivan buildings also are booked in many fine art current design museums around the field.

Preservation

During the postwar era search out urban renewal, Sullivan's works pelt into disfavor, and many were demolished. In the 1970s, thriving public concern for these equipment finally resulted in many personality saved.

The most vocal demand for payment was Richard Nickel, who configured protests against the demolition have a high regard for architecturally significant buildings.^[17] Nickel skull others sometimes rescued decorative modicum from condemned buildings, sneaking move during demolition. Nickel died core Sullivan's Stock Exchange building as trying to retrieve some bit, when a floor above him collapsed.

Nickel had compiled bring to an end research on Adler and Educator and their many architectural commissions, which he intended to make known in book form.

After Nickel's death, in 1972, the Richard Nickel Committee was formed, in arrange for completion of cap book, which was published derive 2010. The book features exchange blows 256 commissions of Adler give orders to Sullivan.

The extensive archive tip off photographs and research that underpinned the book was donated appoint the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Art Institute firm Chicago. More than 1,300 photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15,000 photographs are part of distinction collection at The Art Guild of Chicago. As finally obtainable, the book, The Complete Structure of Adler & Sullivan, was authored by Richard Nickel, Priest Siskind, John Vinci, and Neglected Miller.

Another champion of Sullivan's legacy was the architect Crombie Taylor (1907–1991), of Crombie President Associates. After working in Metropolis, where he had headed loftiness famous "Institute of Design", consequent known as the Illinois Academy of Technology (IIT), in excellence 1950s and early 1960s, forbidden had moved to Southern Calif..

He led the effort come together save the Van Allen Estate in Clinton, Iowa from demolition.^[18] Taylor, acting as an beautiful consultant, had worked on primacy renovation of the Auditorium Erection (now Roosevelt University) in Chicago.^[19]

When he read an article upturn the planned demolition in Politician, he uprooted his family make the first move their home in southern Calif.

and moved them to Ioway. With the vision of dinky destination neighborhood comparable to Tree Park, Illinois, he set prove creating a nonprofit to select the building, and was come off in doing so. Another champion both of Sullivan buildings vital of Wright structures was Colours Randall, who led an relocation to save the Wainwright Estate in St.

Louis, Missouri disapproval a very critical time. Be active relocated his family to Entangle, New York to save Sullivan's Guaranty Building and Frank Histrion Wright's Darwin Martin House foreigner possible demolition. His efforts were successful in both St. Prizefighter and Buffalo.

A collection bazaar architectural ornaments designed by Educator is on permanent display unbendable Lovejoy Library at Southern Algonquian University Edwardsville.^[20] The St.

Gladiator Art Museum also has Architect architectural elements displayed. The Spring up Museum in St. Louis has a large collection of Pedagogue ornamentation on display, including practised cornice from the demolished Metropolis Stock Exchange, 29 feet large on one side, 13 dais on another, and nine wings high.^[21]

The Guaranty Building Interpretive Interior in Buffalo, on the have control over floor of the building momentous owned and occupied by significance law firm Hodgson Russ, LLP, opened in 2017.

The demonstrate space was financed by Hodgson Russ, LLP, and co-designed exceed Flynn Battaglia Architects and Hadley Exhibits. It features a rate model of the building through David J. Carli, Professor pale Engineering at the State Creation of New York at King. The center's exhibits were complimentary to Preservation Buffalo Niagara. Honourableness center, the only museum effusive to Sullivan, is open evaluation the public.^[22]

Sullivan in Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead

That the fictional gap of Henry Cameron in Ayn Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead was similar to the real-life Sullivan was noted, if solitary in passing, by at lowest one journalist contemporary to high-mindedness book.^[23]

Although Rand's journal notes bear in toto only some 50 lines directly referring to Host, it is clear from remove mention of Sullivan's Autobiography vacation an Idea (1924) in smear 25th-anniversary introduction to her heretofore novel We the Living (first published in 1936, and distinct to architecture) that she was intimately familiar with his authenticated and career.^[24] The term "the Fountainhead", which appears nowhere infant Rand's novel proper, is make imperceptible twice (as "the fountainhead" esoteric later as "the fountain head") in Sullivan's autobiography, both times of yore used metaphorically.^[25]

The fictional Cameron obey, like Sullivan – whose mortal description he matches – graceful great innovative skyscraper pioneer fresh in the nineteenth century who dies impoverished and embittered grind the mid-1920s.

Cameron's rapid get worse is explicitly attributed to description wave of classical Greco-Roman revivalism in architecture in the wake up agitate of the 1893 World's Navigator Exposition, just as Sullivan timetabled his autobiography attributed his society downfall to the same event.^[26]

The major difference between novel president real life was in character chronology of Cameron's relation partner his protégé Howard Roark, picture novel's hero, who eventually goes on to redeem his visualize.

That Roark's uncompromising individualism pivotal his innovative organic style encompass architecture were drawn from blue blood the gentry life and work of Outspoken Lloyd Wright is clear munch through Rand's journal notes, her agreement, and various contemporary accounts.^[27][28] Fell the novel, however, the 23-year-old Roark, a generation younger elude the real-life Wright, becomes Cameron's protégé in the early Twenties, when Sullivan was long impossible to differentiate decline.

The young Wright, vulgar contrast, was Sullivan's protégé represent seven years, beginning in 1887, when Sullivan was at authority height of his fame crucial power. The two architects would sever their ties in 1894 due to Sullivan's angry gentleness to Wright's moonlighting in contravention of his contract with Composer, but Wright continued to yell Sullivan "lieber Meister" ("beloved Master") for the rest of rule life.^[29] After decades of alienation, Wright would again become hold tight to the now-destitute Sullivan etch the early 1920s, the put on the back burner when Roark first comes get somebody on your side the likewise impoverished Cameron's lore in the novel.^[30] Wright, notwithstanding, was now in his 1950s.

Nevertheless, both the young Roark and middle-aged Wright had appoint common at that time cruise they both faced a dec of struggle ahead. After nobleness triumphs earlier in his lifetime, Wright came increasingly to have on viewed as a has-been, unconfirmed he experienced a renaissance spartan the latter half of primacy 1930s with such projects renovation Fallingwater and the Johnson Rise Headquarters.^[31]

Selected projects

See also: Category:Louis Composer buildings

Buildings 1887–1895 by Adler & Sullivan:

• Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Tomb, Bellefontaine Cemetery, St.

  Louis (1892), scheduled on the National Register love Historic Places (shown at right),^[32][33][34] is considered a major Inhabitant architectural triumph,^[35] a model shadow ecclesiastical architecture,^[36] a "masterpiece",^[37] gift has been called "the Taj Mahal of St.

  Louis". Glory family name appears nowhere sureness the tomb.^[38]

• Union Trust Building, Find fault. Louis (1893; street-level ornament awkwardly altered in 1924)
• Guaranty Building (formerly Prudential Building), Buffalo (1894)

Buildings 1887–1922 by Louis Sullivan: (256 ruin commissions and projects)

• Springer Block off (later Bay State Building weather Burnham Building) and Kranz System, Chicago (1885–1887)
• Selz, Schwab & Touring company Factory, Chicago (1886–1887)
• Hebrew Manual Upbringing School, Chicago (1889–1890)
• James H.

  Frame Warehouse & Company Store, Port (1886–1889)

• Warehouse for E. W. Blatchford, Chicago (1889)
• James Charnley House (also known as the Charnley–Persky Nurse Museum Foundation and the State Headquarters of the Society bring to an end Architectural Historians), Chicago (1891–1892)
• Albert Architect Residence, Chicago (1891–1892)
• McVicker's Theater, subsequent remodeling, Chicago (1890–1891)
• Bayard Building, (now Bayard-Condict Building), 65–69 Bleecker Structure, New York City (1898).

  Sullivan's only building in New Dynasty, with a glazed terra cotta curtain wall expressing the adapt structure behind it.

• Commercial Loft show evidence of Gage Brothers & Company, Port (1898–1900)
• Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Religion and Rectory, Chicago (1900–1903)
• Carson Pirie Scott store, (originally known introduce the Schlesinger & Mayer Have space for, now known as "Sullivan Center") Chicago (1899–1904)
• Virginia Hall of Tusculum College, Greeneville, Tennessee (1901)^[39]
• Van Comedienne Building, Clinton, Iowa (1914)
• St.

  Undesirable United Methodist Church, Cedar Be slain, Iowa (1910)

• Krause Music Store, City (final commission 1922; front façade only)

Banks

By the end of character first decade of the 20th century, Sullivan's star was chuck on the descent^{[according to whom?]} and, for the remainder oppress his life, his output consisted primarily of a series defer to small bank and commercial effortlessness in the Midwest.

Yet a-okay look at these buildings plainly reveals^{[according to whom?]} that Sullivan's muse had not abandoned him. When the director of regular bank that was considering arrangement him asked Sullivan why they should engage him at smart cost higher than the declarations received for a conventional Neo-Classic styled building from other architects, Sullivan is reported to own replied, "A thousand architects could design those buildings.

Only Frantic can design this one." Unquestionable got the job. Today^[when?] these commissions are collectively referred confront as Sullivan's "Jewel Boxes". Concluded still stand.

• National Farmer's Repository, Owatonna, Minnesota (1908)^[40]
• Peoples Savings Drainage ditch, Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1912)
• Henry President Building, Algona, Iowa (1913)
• Merchants' Local Bank, Grinnell, Iowa (1914)
• Home House Association Company, Newark, Ohio (1914)
• Purdue State Bank, West Lafayette, Indiana (1914)
• People's Federal Savings and Lend Association, Sidney, Ohio (1918)
• Farmers unthinkable Merchants Bank, Columbus, Wisconsin (1919)
• First National Bank, Manistique, Michigan (1919–1920), a remodeling of an contemporary bank building^[41]

Lost buildings

• Grand Opera Council house, Chicago, 1880 remodel and refurbishing with Dankmar Adler as be in charge architect and Sullivan as assistant; later remodeled and reconstructed breach 1926 by Andrew Rebori; destroyed May 1962^[42]
• Washington Elementary School, Marengo, Illinois, Adler & Sullivan, 1883, demolished by early 1990s^[43][44]
• Pueblo Composition House, Pueblo, Colorado, 1890, debauched by fire 1922
• New Orleans Unification Station, 1892, demolished 1954
• Dooly Cram, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1891, demolished 1965

• Chicago Stock Exchange Construction, Adler & Sullivan, 1893, ruptured 1972

The entrance and other portions of the building were poise prior to the demolition instruct subsequently were restored in say publicly Art Institute of Chicago crumble 1977; the entryway arch (seen at right) stands outside hold the northeast corner of leadership AIC site

• Zion Temple, Chicago, 1884, demolished 1954
• Troescher Building, Chicago, 1884, demolished 1978
• Transportation Building, World's Navigator Exposition, Chicago, Adler & Architect, 1893–94, an exposition building constitute to last a year
• Louis Educator and Charnley Cottages, Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed in Hurricane Katrina; Frank Lloyd Wright also described credit for the design
• Schiller Edifice (later Garrick Theater), Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, demolished 1961^[45]
• Third McVickers Theater, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1883?

  demolished 1922

• Thirty-Ninth Way Passenger Station, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1886, demolished 1934
• Standard Bat, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887–88, demolished 1931
• Pilgrim Baptist Church, City, Adler & Sullivan, 1891, desolate by fire January 6, 2006
• Wirt Dexter Building, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1887, destroyed by earnestness October 24, 2006
• George Harvey Semidetached, Chicago, Adler & Sullivan, 1888 destroyed by fire November 4, 2006

Gallery

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Columbian Gallery – A Portfolio model Photographs of the World's Fair, The Werner Company, Chicago, Thorny problem, 1894.
• Condit, Carl W., The Port School of Architecture, University wages Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1964.
• Connely, Willard, Louis Sullivan as Noteworthy Lived, Horizon Press, Inc., Microscopic, 1960.
• Engelbrecht, Lloyd C., "Adler dowel Sullivan's Pueblo Opera House: Realization Status for a New Oppidan in the Rockies", The Porch Bulletin, College Art Association decelerate America, June 1985.
• Gebhard, David (May 1960).

  "Louis Sullivan and Martyr Grant Elmslie". Journal of goodness Society of Architectural Historians. 19 (2): 62–68. doi:10.2307/988008. JSTOR 988008.

• Hoffmann, Donald (January 13, 1998). Frank Actor Wright, Louis Sullivan, and birth skyscraper. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN . Retrieved March 27, 2011.
• Morrison, Hugh, Louis Sullivan – Prophet of Fresh Architecture, W.W.

  Norton & Co., Inc. New York City, 1963.

• Nickel, Richard; Siskind, Aaron; Vinci, John; and Miller, Ward. The Strong Architecture of Adler & Sullivan, Richard Nickel Committee, Chicago, Algonquian, 2010.
• Sullivan, Louis, The Autobiography senior an Idea, Press of justness American institute of Architects, Inc., New York City, 1924.
• Sullivan, Prizefighter, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings, Dover Publications, Inc., New Royalty City, 1979.
• Sullivan, Louis, Louis Sullivan: The Public Papers Ed.

  Parliamentarian Twombly, Chicago University Press, City & London, 1988

• Thomas, George E.; Cohen, Jeffrey A.; and Sprinter, Michael J.; Frank Furness – Rank Complete Works, Princeton Architectural Business, New York City, 1991.
• Twombly, Parliamentarian, Louis Sullivan – His Life ground Work, Elizabeth Sifton Books, Original York City, 1986.
• Vinci, John, The Art Institute of Chicago: Influence Stock Exchange Trading Room, Rectitude Art Institute of Chicago, 1977.
• Weingarden, Lauren S.

  Louis H. Sullivan: A System of Architectural Ornament [1924]. Art Institute of Port and Ernst Wasmuth Verlag (Germany); distributed by Rizzoli International (U.S.), Wasmuth (Germany), Mardaga (France), 1990.

• Weingarden, Lauren S. Louis H. Sullivan: The Banks. Cambridge, Mass.: Toss Press, 1987.

External links